How Does Cocaine Affect The Human Body Video
How Does Cocaine Affect The Human Body
IV 1 mg Morphine is the prototypical opioid and is the standard against which other opioids are tested.
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They are also found on the terminal axons of primary afferents within laminae I and II substantia gelatinosa of the spinal cord and in the spinal nucleus of the trigeminal nerve. Its intrinsic activity at the MOR is heavily dependent on the assay and tissue being tested; in some situations it is a full agonist while in others it can be a partial agonist or even antagonist. Its primary actions of therapeutic value are analgesia and sedation. Activation of the MOR is associated with analgesia, sedation, euphoriaphysical dependenceand respiratory depression. Activation of the KOR is associated with spinal analgesia, miosis pinpoint pupilsDoss psychotomimetic effects.
The DOR is thought to play a role in analgesia. The effects of morphine can here countered with opioid receptor antagonists such as naloxone and naltrexone ; the development of tolerance to morphine may be inhibited by NMDA receptor antagonists such as ketamine or dextromethorphan.
It is fAfect that the strong opioid with the most incomplete cross-tolerance with morphine is either methadone or dextromoramide.
Gene expression[ edit ] Studies have shown that morphine can alter the expression of a number of genes. A single injection of morphine has been shown to alter the expression of two major groups of genes, for proteins involved in mitochondrial respiration and for cytoskeleton -related proteins. This possibility increased interest in the effect of chronic morphine use on the immune system.
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The first step of determining that morphine may affect the immune system was to establish that the opiate receptors known Tue be expressed on cells of the central nervous system are also expressed on cells of the immune system. One study successfully showed that dendritic cellspart of the innate immune system, display opiate receptors. Dendritic cells are responsible for producing cytokineswhich are the tools for communication in the immune system. This same study showed that dendritic cells chronically treated with morphine during their differentiation produce more interleukin ILa cytokine responsible for promoting the proliferation, growth, and differentiation of T-cells another cell of the adaptive immune system How Does Cocaine Affect The Human Body less interleukin ILa cytokine responsible for promoting a B-cell immune response B cells produce antibodies to fight off infection.
Usually, the p38 within the dendritic cell expresses TLR 4 toll-like receptor 4which is activated through the ligand LPS lipopolysaccharide. This causes the p38 MAPK to be phosphorylated. When the dendritic cells are chronically exposed to morphine during their differentiation process then Coczine with LPS, the production of cytokines is different. The exact mechanism through which the production of one cytokine is increased in favor over another is not known.
Most likely, the morphine causes increased phosphorylation of the p38 MAPK. This increased production of IL causes increased T-cell immune response.
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Further studies on the effects of morphine on the immune system have shown that morphine influences the production of neutrophils and other cytokines. Since cytokines are produced as part of the immediate immunological response inflammationit has been suggested that they may also influence pain. In this way, cytokines may be a logical target for analgesic development. Recently, one study has used an animal model hind-paw How Does Cocaine Affect The Human Body to observe the effects of morphine administration on the acute immunological response.
Following hind-paw incision, pain thresholds and cytokine production were measured. Normally, cytokine production in and around the wounded area increases in order to fight infection and control healing and, possibly, to Doez painbut pre-incisional morphine see more 0.]
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