The Problems Of Nationalism In The 18th And 19th Century - opinion you
During most of its history it controlled provinces in the Balkans and Asia Minor. Unlike the Western Roman Empire, which met a famous if rather ill-defined death in the year AD, the Eastern Roman Empire came to a much less famous but far more definitive conclusion at the hands of Mehmet II and the Ottoman Empire in the year Its expert military and diplomatic power ensured inadvertently that Western Europe remained safe from many of the more devastating invasions from eastern peoples, at a time when the still new and fragile Western Christian kingdoms might have had difficulty containing it. The magnitude of influence and contribution the Byzantine Empire made to Europe and Christendom has only begun to be recognised recently. The Emperor Justinian I's formation of a new code of law, the Corpus Juris Civilis , served as a basis of subsequent development of legal codes. Byzantium played an important role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world and to Renaissance Italy. Its rich historiographical tradition preserved ancient knowledge upon which splendid art, architecture, literature and technological achievements were built. This is embodied in the Byzantine version of Christianity, which spread Orthodoxy and eventually led to the creation of the so-called "Byzantine commonwealth" a term coined by 20th-century historians throughout Eastern Europe. Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, amongst whom it still is a predominant religion. The Problems Of Nationalism In The 18th And 19th CenturyThe Problems Of Nationalism In The 18th And 19th Century Video
19th Century NationalismMain articles: Duchy of Rome and Patrimonium Sancti Petri For its first years, within the Roman Empire the Church was persecuted and unrecognized, unable to hold or transfer property. Nonetheless, the properties held nominally or actually by individual members of the Roman churches would usually be considered as a common patrimony handed over successively to the legitimate "heir" of that property, often its senior deaconswho were, in turn, assistants to the local bishop.
This common patrimony attached to the churches at Rome and here, under its ruling bishop, became quite considerable, including as it did not only houses etc. However, the Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, not as a sovereign entity. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the papacy found itself increasingly placed in a precarious and vulnerable position. As central Roman authority disintegrated throughout the late 5th century, control over the Italian peninsula repeatedly changed hands; under Arian suzerainty during the reign of Odoacer and, later, the Ostrogothsthe Church organization in Italy, with the pope at its head, submitted of necessity to their sovereign authority while asserting its spiritual primacy over the whole Church.
Beginning in Inn, the Eastern Roman Empire —referred to by most historians as the Byzantine Empire to distinguish the Greek-speaking and religiously Orthodox polity based in Constantinople from the Latin-speaking, Catholic Empire ruled from Rome —under Emperor Justinian Ilaunched a reconquest of Italy that took decades and devastated Italy's political and economic structures. In the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north, establishing an Italian kingdom, and over the next two centuries would conquer most of the Italian territory regained by Byzantium.
By the 7th century, Byzantine authority was largely limited to a diagonal band running roughly from Ravennawhere the emperor's representative, or Exarchwas located, to Rome and south to 18tn, plus coastal exclaves. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the papacy assumed an ever-larger role in protecting Rome from the Lombards, but lacking direct control over sizable military assets, the Pope relied mainly on here to achieve as much.
The popes renewed earlier The Problems Of Nationalism In The 18th And 19th Century to secure the support of the Franks. Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in and Pepin defeated the Lombards — taking control of northern Italy — and made a gift called the Donation of Pepin Inn the properties formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. InCharlemagne codified the regions over which the pope would be temporal sovereign: the Duchy of Rome was key, but the territory was expanded to include Ravenna, the Duchy of the Pentapolisparts of the Duchy of BeneventoTuscanyCorsicaLombardyand a number of Italian cities.
It was unclear whether the Papal States were a separate realm with the pope as their sovereign ruler, merely a part of the Frankish Empire over which the popes had administrative control, as suggested in the late-9th-century treatise Libellus de imperatoria potestate in urbe Romaor whether the Holy Roman Emperors were vicars of the pope as a sort of Archemperor ruling Christendom, with the pope directly responsible only for the environs of Rome and spiritual duties. Events in the 9th century postponed the conflict.
The Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed as it was subdivided among Charlemagne 's grandchildren. See more power in Italy waned and the papacy's prestige declined. This led to a rise in the power of the local Roman nobility, and the control of the Papal States during the early 10th century by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti. This period was later dubbed the Saeculum obscurum "dark age"and sometimes as the "rule by harlots".
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Over several campaigns in the midth century, the German ruler Otto I conquered northern Italy; Pope John XII crowned him emperor the first so crowned Islomania Essays more than forty years and the two Thee them ratified the Diploma Ottonianumby which the emperor became the guarantor of the independence of the Papal States. As the Gregorian Reform worked to free the administration of the church from imperial interference, the independence of the Papal States increased in importance.
After the extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynastythe German emperors rarely interfered in Italian affairs. In response to the struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibellinesthe Treaty of Venice made official the independence of Papal States from the Holy Roman Empire in Bythe Papal States, along with the rest of the Italian principalities, were effectively independent. This period was known as the "Avignonese" or "Babylonian Captivity". In Ferrara, the death of Azzo VIII d'Este without legitimate heirs [25] encouraged Pope Thhe V to The Problems Of Nationalism In The 18th And 19th Century Ferrara under his direct rule: however, it was governed by his appointed vicar, King Robert of Naplesfor only nine years before the citizens recalled the Este from exile ; interdiction and excommunications were in vain: in John XXII was obliged to name three Este brothers as his vicars in Ferrara.
The resulting aristocratic anarchy in the city provided the setting for the fantastic dreams of universal democracy of Cola di Rienzowho was acclaimed Tribune of the People in[28] and met a violent death in early October as Nationnalism was assassinated by supporters of the Colonna family. Guido Ruggiero states, "even with the support of Petrarchhis return to first times and the rebirth of ancient Rome was one that would not prevail.
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These Constitutiones Egidiane mark a watershed in the legal history of the Papal States; they remained in effect until Pope Urban V ventured a return to Italy in that proved premature; he returned to Avignon in just before his death. The pope became one of Italy's most important secular rulers as well as the Probles of the Church, signing treaties with other sovereigns and fighting wars. In practice, though, most of the Papal States was still only nominally controlled by the pope, and much of the territory was ruled by minor princes.]
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